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Link Posted: 4/4/2017 6:59:36 PM EST
[#1]
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Quoted:
A good sword made from a high quality steel will easily remove a head, arm, or leg. Expect to pay over $1,000 and that won't get you anything fancy.

A good "Samurai" sword is not brittle. (They are differentially heat treated.)

I trained under the highest ranking Grandmaster of Iai-Jutsu in the USA. Iai-Jutsu is the quick draw/quick kill art of the Samurai. Draw sword as enemy is attacking, deflect incoming blow, remove enemies head, deblood sword, resheathe sword. Object was to have your sword resheathed before your enemies head hit the ground. Under 3 seconds total.

Hollywood depictions of Samurai are BS. Typical sword fight was over in 3 seconds, with one person dead. Unarmed combat would end in under 10 seconds, with one person dead.
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Brittle was the wrong term, more like non-flexible.
Japanese swords bend rather than flex
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:02:04 PM EST
[#2]
I've read about cavalry sabers doing horrific damage. The blade geometry is similar on a Katana so why not ?
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:02:24 PM EST
[#3]
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Quoted:


I disagree with almost all of that.  Both Euro and japanes swords varied greatly in their size, thickness, length and use.  From monster battle swords to gentle city swords for indoor parties.
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The katana varied from sword maker to sword maker, but it didn't vary as much like one was an epee and another was a scimitar. 
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:02:51 PM EST
[#4]
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Quoted:


Because everything you said was wrong.

Euro swords can be just as sharp with very good steel.

Have you tried Tameshigiri with both? I have. I'd prefer a euro hand and a half sword or a saber over a katana. Longer blade, better cutter, and more hand protection. I have way more experience with katanas as well but see their shortcomings.
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I don't see how a hand and a half sword could outcut a katana given the blade geometry. The hand protection would be a huge issue though.

Earlier Viking and Anglo Saxon swords had little hand protection, but that probably wasn't needed based upon how they were used with a shield.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:04:13 PM EST
[#5]
In the final analysis, Hollywood shows will be proven to have done much more damage than samurai swords.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:04:42 PM EST
[#6]
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Quoted:

Well they might be as sharp as YOUR knives, but they aren't as sharp as mine. Most swords have a much thicker edge geometry.
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Lol. You could shave with this...

Attachment Attached File


and it has a massively thick blade. My Katana is even sharper.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:06:42 PM EST
[#7]
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Quoted:
Swords aren't as sharp as knives.
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Quoted:
Quoted:
Have you ever cut yourself with a brand new benchmade? I'd imagine that a 3 foot knife that sharp could lop off a head pretty easy if you were skilled enough/

But I'm like you op I don't know shit about swords that's just a guess.
Swords aren't as sharp as knives.
And here we have a proper specimen of someone that has no clue of which he speaks. 
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:06:47 PM EST
[#8]
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:07:02 PM EST
[#9]
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Quoted:

Well they might be as sharp as YOUR knives, but they aren't as sharp as mine. Most swords have a much thicker edge geometry.
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I have a zombie tools zakasushi that will shave from one end of the blade to the other.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:07:27 PM EST
[#10]
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Quoted:
The samurai sword is not a thick steel blade like European swords. It's lighter and has a razor sharp edge. So samurai wore armor made of bamboo and leather so as not to get cut, but it wasn't metal plates like European armor.
As for chopping people, it's like a Ginsu knife times 20, it's going to leave a huge gash. But, it's not going to break a bone though like a heavy sword could. But if it hits something very solid like rock or metal, it's going to dent or break and edge is going to get dull.
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Iron and steel plates were commonly used in Japanese armor construction.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:09:30 PM EST
[#11]
the secret world of the japanese swordsmith
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:09:50 PM EST
[#12]
The problem lies with the Jap inability to forge Valyrian steel.

It's quite simple.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:10:00 PM EST
[#13]
depends on the era of the swords.  

Some swords would go through a cut test (Tameshigiri) and grading.  The grading would be stamped on the tang.

Often the tests would be performed on live prisoners.  Some swords


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tameshigiri

some swords pass multiple body cuts. Stack the bodies on top of each other and how many can you cut through?  Like this sword which was graded as a 3 body test.
http://nihontoart.com/shop/2-body-test-cut-kinzogan-katana/

So can you cut through bodies, and arms and legs? Sure.  The early period Tachi's, nodachi's and O'dachi's were used against cavalry.

The early armors helped to protect against the long straight chinese influenced blades.  The curved blades made sword fighting easier from horseback.    The armor has specific areas that aren't armored to allow body movement.  A lot of the sword fighting techniques specifically aim at these points.  Even to the point of: knock the guy down, lift up his mask and stab his neck/head.   Also much of the fighting became more of a duel.  Not so much of the cliche "Braveheart" or Napoleanesque type melees.    
    But much of this depends on the era.  Armors changed.  Swords changed.  Fighting techniques changed.  Straight sword Vs. early armor techniques are different than deep curved Tachi or shallow curve katana vs armored....and un armored.

So to answer your question: it depends.  Also, a lot of hollywood is about the affects.  As a swordsman, I may aim for your wrist before your body. There's a strategy involved that gets lost in the theatrics and gymnastics.

Outside of hollywood,  I'd watch a lot of the older japanese samurai films.  They are more true to the capabilities and period correctness.

Toshiro Mifune's Yojimbo
Seven samurai
samruai I: Miyamoto Mushashi by Hirohsi Inagaki
samruai II: Duel at Ichijoji Temple
samruai III: Duel at Ganryu Island
13 Assassins
Samurai Rebellion
Zatoichi
sanjuro

also: http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/lists/10-great-samurai-films
http://www.ranker.com/list/samurai-cinema-movies-and-films/reference

Chinese movies:
Redcliff
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:10:44 PM EST
[#14]
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Quoted:
I've practiced iado, kenjitsu, and kendo. Give me a proper European saber everyday of the week
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Ok, but why? Did you actually use the samurai sword to cut and slice human flesh and then do the same with a European saber in order to compare them?
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:11:07 PM EST
[#15]
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Quoted:


Because everything you said was wrong.

Euro swords can be just as sharp with very good steel.

Have you tried Tameshigiri with both? I have. I'd prefer a euro hand and a half sword or a saber over a katana. Longer blade, better cutter, and more hand protection. I have way more experience with katanas as well but see their shortcomings.
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Quoted:


Because everything you said was wrong.

Euro swords can be just as sharp with very good steel.

Have you tried Tameshigiri with both? I have. I'd prefer a euro hand and a half sword or a saber over a katana. Longer blade, better cutter, and more hand protection. I have way more experience with katanas as well but see their shortcomings.
This is what John Clements says about the cutting ability of katana vs Longsword:

Nonetheless, a curved blade is mechanically superior to a straight one at delivering edge blows to produce injury. And due to its hardness, the single curving edge of the katana is very good at penetrating even hard materials with straight-on strikes. Verdict: Katana.
And this:

A springier blade, such as on the longsword, is able to endure fatigue and abuse over longer periods. However, a more robust blade able to resist breaking will tolerate greater sudden stress as in cutting powerfully at more resistant materials, which the katana achieves. Katanas tended to be strong essentially because their thick blades and narrow edges were of laminated structures with a differential heat treatment. Katanas typically have a very good combination of strengths due to tensile versus compressive forces from the edge material actually being longer than the spine (forcing its natural curvature). But such hardness is possible on two-edge straight blades as well. The katana will cut soft objects very well with little fatigue/strength issues, but over time it will not handle massive impacts or lateral forces as due to the same heat treatment that gives it such a strong edge (but requires a softer back). Additionally, the fact is, the sharper and the harder an edge, the easier it chips and cracks from use (i.e., suffers brittle failures). A softer edge, by contrast, will fold and dull from use (ductile failures). The katana required more rigidity for its hard-cutting design, while for its utility the longsword was more of a spring. The katana's edge leaned towards more brittleness while its spine was more prone to bending. In both weapons, cross sectional shape compensated for weaknesses while capitalizing on strengths.
http://www.thearma.org/essays/longsword-and-katana.html#.WOQ09E11pmM
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:11:20 PM EST
[#16]
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Nice! You must have one of those fancy guided sharpening systems.  [snip]
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I did this freehand with foam and wet/dry sandpaper taped to a 2x4. I also determined that a mirror polished edge is pretty and good for push cuts, but not optimal for the usual slicing this knife is asked to do.

Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:18:19 PM EST
[#17]
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Quoted:
The katana varied from sword maker to sword maker, but it didn't vary as much like one was an epee and another was a scimitar. 
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Quoted:
I disagree with almost all of that.  Both Euro and japanes swords varied greatly in their size, thickness, length and use.  From monster battle swords to gentle city swords for indoor parties.
The katana varied from sword maker to sword maker, but it didn't vary as much like one was an epee and another was a scimitar. 
They did (almost) exactly that and more.  Similar to the European changes in swords. As large crowds of field battles changed to horse back, then armored, then urban combat and eventually peace time ornamental use and dueling; the size, shape and use of swords changed too, both in Europe and Japan.
Some era's they were used as scimitars on horse back later they were fencing blades used against other knights/samurai on the streets or in the royal court.  The Japanese have double edged and straight swords too.  Always have.
And of course, used against peasants to enforce the royal order.

Pikes/spears and archery were the main weapons of war.  Swords were secondary in large open warfare but greater symbolism all other times.


Eta...this does not include straight or double edged swords

Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:18:49 PM EST
[#18]
Not the ones you get at the flea market.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:19:07 PM EST
[#19]
All I need to know about swords I learned from Mr. Fisk.
Cautionary Tales Of Swords #1
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:21:55 PM EST
[#20]
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Quoted:
This is what John Clements says about the cutting ability of katana vs Longsword:

And this:

http://www.thearma.org/essays/longsword-and-katana.html#.WOQ09E11pmM
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Quoted:
Quoted:


Because everything you said was wrong.

Euro swords can be just as sharp with very good steel.

Have you tried Tameshigiri with both? I have. I'd prefer a euro hand and a half sword or a saber over a katana. Longer blade, better cutter, and more hand protection. I have way more experience with katanas as well but see their shortcomings.
This is what John Clements says about the cutting ability of katana vs Longsword:

Nonetheless, a curved blade is mechanically superior to a straight one at delivering edge blows to produce injury. And due to its hardness, the single curving edge of the katana is very good at penetrating even hard materials with straight-on strikes. Verdict: Katana.
And this:

A springier blade, such as on the longsword, is able to endure fatigue and abuse over longer periods. However, a more robust blade able to resist breaking will tolerate greater sudden stress as in cutting powerfully at more resistant materials, which the katana achieves. Katanas tended to be strong essentially because their thick blades and narrow edges were of laminated structures with a differential heat treatment. Katanas typically have a very good combination of strengths due to tensile versus compressive forces from the edge material actually being longer than the spine (forcing its natural curvature). But such hardness is possible on two-edge straight blades as well. The katana will cut soft objects very well with little fatigue/strength issues, but over time it will not handle massive impacts or lateral forces as due to the same heat treatment that gives it such a strong edge (but requires a softer back). Additionally, the fact is, the sharper and the harder an edge, the easier it chips and cracks from use (i.e., suffers brittle failures). A softer edge, by contrast, will fold and dull from use (ductile failures). The katana required more rigidity for its hard-cutting design, while for its utility the longsword was more of a spring. The katana's edge leaned towards more brittleness while its spine was more prone to bending. In both weapons, cross sectional shape compensated for weaknesses while capitalizing on strengths.
http://www.thearma.org/essays/longsword-and-katana.html#.WOQ09E11pmM
"In both weapons, cross sectional shape compensated for weaknesses while capitalizing on strengths. "

So give me the longer sword with more hand protection.

I'm at odds to his assertion that one blade is sharper.

You haven't answered my question if you have used both for cutting.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:22:17 PM EST
[#21]
The Hollywood swords aren't nearly as good as Japanese swords. The Japanese swords are good for cutting through 1000 watermelons, a 500 sq. ft. bamboo grove, 100 coconuts, and slice up a wheel of cheddar cheese before it needs sharpening. Hollywood swords can't do half that. Chinese swords are made of really poor steel and can't hold an edge long enough to cut through fog.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:22:48 PM EST
[#22]
Quoted:
Not a sword guy and Hollywood blows things out of proportion but can samurai swords do the kind of damage they portray?
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Hollywood shows do a lot more damage.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:24:03 PM EST
[#23]
Even real samurai did a hell of a lot more real fighting with arrows and pole arms than swords.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:25:40 PM EST
[#24]
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Quoted:
Ok, but why? Did you actually use the samurai sword to cut and slice human flesh and then do the same with a European saber in order to compare them?
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Quoted:
Quoted:
I've practiced iado, kenjitsu, and kendo. Give me a proper European saber everyday of the week
Ok, but why? Did you actually use the samurai sword to cut and slice human flesh and then do the same with a European saber in order to compare them?
obviously not

I have used them for Tameshigiri.

I've also spared with them. Reach and hand protection trump the mythical Katana.

I still enjoy Japanese blades fwiw
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:26:56 PM EST
[#25]
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Quoted:
you get the tip through a slot or opening in the armor.
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Phrasing........
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:26:56 PM EST
[#26]
I've killed wild hogs with a knife.  I barely felt the resistance when stabbing and  found the amount of damage pretty amazing.  A sword swung with force would be devestating.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:27:08 PM EST
[#27]
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Quoted:
Even real samurai did a hell of a lot more real fighting with arrows and pole arms than swords.
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Yup. Same with Europeans. Swords are like side arms.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:28:48 PM EST
[#28]
Depends on what you hit with it. Against unarmored people, pretty nasty stuff. Against an armored opponent, hard target, gun barrel, etc, not much except break or bend.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:32:12 PM EST
[#29]
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Quoted:


Fail!

Bayonets and machine guns did most of the killing. Keep in mind that just about all the Jap officers that had one were not trained to use it.
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Plus the swords used for killing in Nanking were used on noncombatants, usually with their hands bound. In the book I recall mention of a beheading contest. It's not like the Japanese were testing their swordsmanship skills against similarly armed, peer equivalent adversaries. Anything sharp-ish would have done the same thing to a helpless prisoner.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:32:21 PM EST
[#30]
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Quoted:
Swords aren't as sharp as knives.
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Quoted:
Quoted:
Have you ever cut yourself with a brand new benchmade? I'd imagine that a 3 foot knife that sharp could lop off a head pretty easy if you were skilled enough/

But I'm like you op I don't know shit about swords that's just a guess.
Swords aren't as sharp as knives.
The fuck they aren't...I've held a katana that was as sharp as a straight razor.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:33:26 PM EST
[#31]
She'll cut you up!




Here's some funny cutting
?????? ??? (Japanese Katana Failure Cutting ???????)


And then the successful cutting
????? ??? ?Success Collection of Japanese Sword Cutting?



An article about tameshigiri...
http://www.tameshigiri.ca/2013/11/28/an-academic-look-at-the-history-of-tameshigiri/
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:33:31 PM EST
[#32]
Which sword is best in a one-on-one duel?..... Historical fencing
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:34:28 PM EST
[#33]
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Quoted:

Iron and steel plates were commonly used in Japanese armor construction.
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Common after the 1500s



Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:35:51 PM EST
[#34]
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:37:46 PM EST
[#35]
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Quoted:
A good sword made from a high quality steel will easily remove a head, arm, or leg. Expect to pay over $1,000 and that won't get you anything fancy.

A good "Samurai" sword is not brittle. (They are differentially heat treated.)

I trained under the highest ranking Grandmaster of Iai-Jutsu in the USA. Iai-Jutsu is the quick draw/quick kill art of the Samurai. Draw sword as enemy is attacking, deflect incoming blow, remove enemies head, deblood sword, resheathe sword. Object was to have your sword resheathed before your enemies head hit the ground. Under 3 seconds total.

Hollywood depictions of Samurai are BS. Typical sword fight was over in 3 seconds, with one person dead. Unarmed combat would end in under 10 seconds, with one person dead.
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Sure in a duel.  

Remember, there is also

iai-justu  (drawing or draw/cutting skills/techniques), also with nukiuchi (fast drawing).,..,.,.,. (this is mostly about the drawing.  iai is to draw.)
ken-jutsu (sword (dueling) techniques) .,..,.,.,. (this is everything after the draw)
battojutsu (battlefield techniques)  .,..,.,.,.  (beginning with sword in saya, draw and cut)
biken jutsu (hidden sword techniques)

There are a lot of nuances with the Japanese names above and the techniques learned. depending on the Ryuha.

Recall too that battlefield techniques will differ than dueling techniques, which also differs from a samurais capacity as an enforcer with license to kill.

Then throw in period armor......


Also, considering the steel type and bitterness Vs. strength.....
Early period swords were brittle and often broken after battles.
It wasn't until a sword maker got tired of seeing broken swords that he developed the metallurgical techniques which evolved into the differentially tempered, folded steel blades.
Folding the steel helps to homogenize the steel (they got steel from heating clumps of iron rich earth).
There were different methods like san mai, a 3 layer sandwhich, or the one with a hard outside wrapped around a soft inside.  

The idea was they want a pure metal (homogenized with folding) that has an extremely hard edge (hardness of steel increases it's brittleness).  To reduce the effect of the brittleness they differentially heat treated it so that the edge remains super hard, but the spine remains soft.  The soft ness of the spine is where you get toughness and resilience. It allows the blade to absorb impacts and not break.  

in short, hard edge, soft interior/spine.

See for example:


The dark cross sections are hard steel. The lighter colors are softer.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:37:58 PM EST
[#36]
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Quoted:
I've read about cavalry sabers doing horrific damage. The blade geometry is similar on a Katana so why not ?
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Swung down from atop a charging horse pretty much any sharpened strip of metal will inflict horrific damage. Even a club will inflict horrific damage when wielded in such a manner.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:40:25 PM EST
[#37]
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Quoted:
Check out the Nanking massacre.

Spelling?
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Yup.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:42:16 PM EST
[#38]
giant pile of derp up in here tonight.  i'm far from a SME, but know a bit from study and practice.  some thoughts:

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Quoted:
Wat? A blade is a blade. You would be able to achieve the same angle and sharpness with both why would knives be sharper?
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Quoted:
Wat? A blade is a blade. You would be able to achieve the same angle and sharpness with both why would knives be sharper?
physics.  a knife isn't as long, so the stresses on it aren't as high.  the problem with a very sharp sword is that there is very little steel at the edge...which takes the full force of the impact.  the result are chips, focus of stress, and potential catastrophic failure.  european swordmakers usually addressed this problem by keeping their swords chisel-sharp rather than knife-sharp.  japanese swordmakers employed a convex/lenticular cross section, which reinforced the edge with a lot more steel.  thus japanese swords could be much sharper than their euro counterparts, but still hold up to heavy impacts.

Quoted:
They were made of soft iron with a steel edge welded on. They were not tempered so they would bend and stay bent. They were no sharper than any other sword. They were not good at piercing, and so were not very good against someone with metal armor. They can be compared to a short, overweight European saber.
this is an impressive level of derp.

Quoted:

Katanas are significantly heavier for the blade length than most European swords.
and you doubled down here.  what makes you think this?
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:43:46 PM EST
[#39]
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Quoted:
A good sword made from a high quality steel will easily remove a head, arm, or leg. Expect to pay over $1,000 and that won't get you anything fancy.

A good "Samurai" sword is not brittle. (They are differentially heat treated.)

I trained under the highest ranking Grandmaster of Iai-Jutsu in the USA. Iai-Jutsu is the quick draw/quick kill art of the Samurai. Draw sword as enemy is attacking, deflect incoming blow, remove enemies head, deblood sword, resheathe sword. Object was to have your sword resheathed before your enemies head hit the ground. Under 3 seconds total.

Hollywood depictions of Samurai are BS. Typical sword fight was over in 3 seconds, with one person dead. Unarmed combat would end in under 10 seconds, with one person dead.
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Ah yes, the exquisite art of the samurai sword.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:44:26 PM EST
[#40]
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Quoted:
Swung down from atop a charging horse pretty much any sharpened strip of metal will inflict horrific damage. Even a club will inflict horrific damage when wielded in such a manner.
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Quoted:
Quoted:
I've read about cavalry sabers doing horrific damage. The blade geometry is similar on a Katana so why not ?
Swung down from atop a charging horse pretty much any sharpened strip of metal will inflict horrific damage. Even a club will inflict horrific damage when wielded in such a manner.
Sabers were also used on foot

HEMA instructors fighting with the Polish saber - Lee Smith vs. Richard Marsden
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:44:33 PM EST
[#41]
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Quoted:


Yup. Same with Europeans. Swords are like side arms.
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Swords and six-shooters look better on film than spears and single-shot rifles.

Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:46:25 PM EST
[#42]
Did you know Hattori Hanzo, the legendary sword maker in Kill Bill 1, was an actual person, a famous Ninja who assisted the actual person portrayed by Lord Toranaga in the book and show Shogun to actually become a Shogun and start a dynasty?

Yep, Shogun was based on actual history and on the famous Samurai leader Tokugawa Ieyasu and the name of the actual Englishman he befriended was William Adams, the first Englishman to sail to those waters and who was befriended by the Shogun, who BTW started a dynasty that saved the world of Bushido and Samurai from outside influence for almost 300 years until the late 1800s. The Shogunate was fearful the Spanish and Portuguese would convert, enslave, and steal their gold like they did all over the rest of the world.

Were it not for this one Shogun dynasty the world of the samurai and their swords probably wouldnt have lasted another generation....Little Historical snack for you to snack on.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:49:10 PM EST
[#43]
I'm sure this has been posted before. 50 BMG vs Samurai sword. FWD to 1:10 for the bullet cutting slow mo.......

<iframe width="560" height="315" src="V2mIuayVKbA" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>

vid
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:50:02 PM EST
[#44]
Funny thread.  Are you guys saying  they're brittle because you've seen the SS ones break on Home Shopping Network?

Good katanas are not brittle,  but they were meant as a slicing weapon (think the movie Predators fought scene) not as some broadsword.   I've beat the hell out of mine with no ill effects.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:50:35 PM EST
[#45]


Chirasaya, double edged



Ken



Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:51:51 PM EST
[#46]
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:52:48 PM EST
[#47]
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Swords in general vs heavy plate armor tend to be not as effective. Which is why war hammers, maces and pole arms were much more common during that era. Plus, becoming a skilled swordsman of any style required hours upon hours of training and practice while you could train soldiers to be effective with hammers and pole arms much quicker.
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:52:57 PM EST
[#48]
U
The TRUTH about the Ninja and Ninjutsu
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:53:53 PM EST
[#49]
Link Posted: 4/4/2017 7:55:16 PM EST
[#50]
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Quoted:
The samurai sword is not a thick steel blade like European swords. It's lighter and has a razor sharp edge. So samurai wore armor made of bamboo and leather so as not to get cut, but it wasn't metal plates like European armor.
As for chopping people, it's like a Ginsu knife times 20, it's going to leave a huge gash. But, it's not going to break a bone though like a heavy sword could. But if it hits something very solid like rock or metal, it's going to dent or break and edge is going to get dull.
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Have you ever even held a Katana? The thickness of the mune is more then any regular medieval sword I can think of. It is no sharper or duller then any other European blade could hold. The katana was a few pounds making it perfectly capable of breaking bone because the weight difference between it and a long sword is basically 0.
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